Chapter on pilot project results

This represents the results of our pilot project carried out in 2024. The full project results will be published shortly along with our theoretical framework. Please contact Professor Baxter for information on talks for your organisation. First published in The International Handbook of Governance Leadership and Administration. Pre-publication copy below.

Does self-perceived introversion create a barrier to leadership emergence in Higher Education: a case study approach

Authors

Professor Dr Jacqueline Baxter is Professor of Public Leadership and Management at The Open University Business School. 

Dr Volker Patent is a Chartered Psychologist and senior lecturer in Psychology. His research interest and publications focus on trust and personality, specifically concerning organisations and leadership. He works as a freelance coach and psychotherapist, helping people to develop their potential and overcome barriers to personal success

Anna Winter is an Associate Lecturer and Practice Tutor in the Faculty of Business and Law at the Open University. Anna holds a master’s in management and previously worked in Human Resources. As a Research Assistant on this project, she continues to support our ongoing work in this area.

Abstract

Introversion and extroversion are personality traits that define individuals' preferences for social interaction and energy sources. Introverts tend to be more reserved, drawing energy from solitary activities, and often display reflective thinking. Extroverts, on the other hand, are known to thrive in social settings, gaining energy from interaction, and typically exhibit outgoing and expressive behaviour (Michael, 2003). Leadership ideals in the global North often lean towards extroversion due to cultural norms and historical context and extroverted traits such as assertiveness and charisma align with prevailing Western notions of success and dominance ((Stephens-Craig et al., 2015). Additionally, historical leaders who shaped these ideals, such as political figures and industrialists, often exhibited extroverted qualities, reinforcing this perspective (Nobel, 2010). However, such emphasis can side-line introverted leaders who bring valuable qualities such as reflective thinking and active listening. Studies highlight how such stereotypes lead introverts to perceive leadership roles as incompatible with their personalities, thus deterring them from applying (Farrell, 2017).

In summary, the reticence of self-perceived introverts (SPIs) to apply for leadership positions has been attributed in the literature, to a combination of internal factors, societal biases, and workplace dynamics (Wisser & Massey, 2019). Recognizing and valuing the strengths that introverts bring, challenging extroverted leadership stereotypes, and fostering inclusive organizational cultures that embrace diverse communication styles are key to encouraging introverts to pursue leadership roles(Hinkley, 2005). With this in mind this project adopts a case study approach in a single HEI, to examine the perceptions of individuals who identify as introverts, in relation to their leadership aspirations. It specifically asks the questions: Why do individuals self-identify as introverts? How does this affect their perceptions of leadership and their own capability in rising to a leadership position?  What are the implications of this for how we develop leaders in this particular organisation? The chapter uses a narrative sensemaking approach to identity, examining in particular the language and metaphors of individuals who aspire, or fail to aspire to leadership positions. It uses data from 21 qualitative semi-structured interviews with HE staff who self-identify as introverts. The results indicate important findings for leadership development and infer that a far greater focus on introversion as a key element of inclusive leadership is vital in order to ensure diversity of leadership and its emergence, in the future. 

Introduction and rationale for the research 

Succession planning for leadership is a key element of any Higher Education Institution (HEI), but, as studies report,(Buckway, 2020; Giambatista et al., 2005), this is far from straightforward. The reasons why individuals do not come forward for or attain leadership roles are many and varied ranging from, lack of aspiration, confidence or ability, to organisational cultures, and the ways in which leadership is framed within organisations (Kaluza et al., 2020). Research illustrates that organisations sometimes struggle to find good leaders due to perceptions of the skills and behaviours exhibited by existing leaders within the organisation, particularly when these leaders model poor behaviours (Dietz et al., 2020; Hattab et al., 2022).

Leadership emergence is a complex phenomenon influenced by individual, situational, and social factors. It refers to the process through which individuals become recognized and accepted as leaders within a group or organization, and involves the interplay of various individual, situational, and social factors that contribute to the selection and endorsement of leaders by group members (Hanna et al., 2021; Jäppinen, 2014). One of the most robust findings in the leadership and leadership emergence literature, is the correlation between leadership and extroverted traits. For example, a meta-analysis by Judge et al (2002) found that extraversion is a predictor of both emergent  and perceived leadership effectiveness (Judge et al., 2002), whilst Bono and Judge found that employees displaying extroverted traits were significantly more likely to both emerge as leaders in selection and promotion decisions and also be perceived as effective leaders by supervisors and subordinates (Bono & Judge, 2004). 

The UK and the US have emerged in several inter country studies, as being countries that are most biased in their approach to leadership and extroversion (Cain, 2013; House et al., 2004).  This paper explores an emergent area of research; whether and how the perceptions of self-perceived introverts, (SPIs), act as barriers to their emergence as leaders in their organisations. In so doing we adopt a case study approach based on a single UK HEI to explore these questions.  We begin by outlining our approach to introversion and leadership emergence before moving to our methods, sample and findings. The chapter concludes with an exploration of what our findings may mean for leadership development in HE organisations. 

Introversion and Extroversion: approaches

Introversion and extroversion are core elements within personality theory, an area of research which is applied in studies into individual differences (Furnham, 2001).  These facets of personality have been researched by both trait and behavioural psychologists Within this, arguments supporting introversion as a form of neurodiversity highlight the unique cognitive and behavioural traits associated with introverted individuals. According to Cain (2012), introverts often possess heightened sensitivity to stimuli, deeper reflective capacities, and a preference for solitary activities. These characteristics, considered part of introverted neurodiversity, contribute to diverse perspectives and cognitive styles within society. Moreover, a number of more recent studies suggest that introverts display distinct patterns of brain activity, indicating a neurobiological basis for introverted traits  (Bailey, 2023; Jones & Graffin, 2020; Yan et al., 2023). 

Originally coined by Carl Jung (Jung, 1921) the concept of introversion has been extensively researched over the 20th century. Most of the research into introversion and other personality traits is grounded in trait perspectives or those associated with it (Tett & Burnett, 2003). This approach is objectivist and conceptualizes introversion as a biologically driven trait with genetic, neurological, and behavioural characteristics that differ among people. While there are some variations in operational definitions there is a general agreement on the traits of introverts. The established view in personality research is that introversion is a characteristic influencing people’s social behaviours. Introverts are described as preferring internal experiences and being less energised by people than extraverts (Tuovinen et al., 2020) and becoming overstimulated in social contexts (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1985). These characteristics are then used to explain their behaviours. 

Studies relating to the perception of introverts in the workplace and socially, argue that from a sociological perspective, introversion as a trait or a collection of traits is acquired by social interaction with others (Blevins et al., 2022; Sovinee-Dyroff, 2023). From a socio-cultural perspective, both social and cultural factors influence the development and expression of introverted traits (Pettigrew, 1958). This perspective acknowledges that introverted tendencies may manifest differently across various cultural contexts and societal norms. For instance, in cultures valuing collectivism and group harmony, introverted individuals may navigate social interactions differently compared to those in cultures emphasizing individualism and assertiveness (Jones et al., 2013). Socio-cultural factors such as family dynamics, peer interactions, and societal expectations play a significant role in shaping introverted behaviour and self-perception (Ashton & Lee, 2007). Schein's model, outlined in his work "Organizational Socialization and the Profession of Management," emphasizes the importance of three stages: encountering, understanding, and managing (Schein, 2016). His work argues that, in understanding the organizational culture and their role within it, individuals can navigate social situations with greater confidence. However, there is evidence that in extroverted organisational cultures, this model may inadvertently work to create barriers for individuals who don’t fit within that particular organisational cultural ideal of leadership (House et al., 2004).

Understanding introversion through a socio-cultural lens highlights the interplay between individual differences and broader socio-cultural contexts, offering insights into the diverse manifestations and meanings of introverted personality traits across societies. This approach examines how social interactions, cultural norms, and historical contexts shape human behaviour and knowledge. Rooted in Vygotsky's theory, it emphasizes the role of mediation, tools, and shared meanings in learning and development (Wertsch & Sohmer, 1995). This perspective integrates qualitative methods and contextual analysis (Rogoff, 2003). Organisational socialisation may ensure people develop a sense of the value of their introverted or other traits manifested by expressions of performance evaluations and development targets. Such an approach reflects work on perceptions of introverts in the workplace, (Raja et al., 2020), and in particular, the perception of introverts in relation to leadership and leadership emergence (Spark et al., 2018; Stephens-Craig et al., 2015). As such, the approach has been found to be productive when examining both leadership and its emergence.

The concept of introversion has become widely known in public discourses due to dissemination of personality theory, the use of psychometric tests in occupational testing and presence of personality concepts in coaching and leadership development. As a result, people’s understanding of their personality may be shaped by experiences of psychometric personality assessment, but may equally well be due to self-categorisation, following exposure to feedback from others or from reading about introversion in public media. Here we adopt a perspective that explores the effect of believing oneself to be an introvert, rather than of introversion as measured by psychometric test.

We remain agnostic on the trait perspectives and are not specifically concerned in this study with individual debates relating to the existence of traits or the extent of these traits in our study population. Instead we are more concerned with who the social construct and internal narratives of introversion, shape self-identified introverts perspectives on their experience and desire for leadership roles. Adopting a constructivist approach, we are concerned about the impact of others on the framing of introverts (Goffman, 1974), particularly in organisational cultures in which extroverted behaviours are valued above introverted ones, and in which introverted behaviours may even be pathologized (Fudjack, 2013). As these conditions render it highly unlikely that introverts will attain or aspire to leadership roles (Karlsen & Langvik, 2021; Turban et al.). In what follows, we outline our methodology.

Methodology

The study uses a narrative sensemaking approach to socio cultural identity, (Vough et al., 2020), examining the language and metaphors of individuals who aspire, or fail to aspire to leadership positions. It uses data from twenty-one qualitative semi-structured interviews with individuals who self-identify as introverts including those in both non-leadership as well as leadership roles.

A case study approach was chosen for this research , in order to provide the rich contextualized understanding which aids identification of  patterns, themes and evaluation of  solutions to particular issues (Flyvbjerg, 2006).

Semi structured interviews were conducted with 21 individuals via MS teams, employing the questions set out in Appendix 01.  The questions assume that participants themselves would be able to define their understanding of introversion and were designed to explore themes including the individuals’ self-identified introverted traits, as well as the extent to which they felt that their introversion acted as a barrier to their emergence as leaders. Exploratory questions were also utilised to understand in more detail, issues that the individual themselves raised during the interview process, this allowed for deeper understanding of specific themes and facilitated the discovery of unexpected insights. All interviews were recorded, and the transcripts anonymised. NVivo was then utilised to code the transcripts to identify key themes, with the most recurrent ideas outlined below.

Twenty-one self-selecting participants were interviewed as part of this research, recruited via a series of workshops given by the Principal Investigator, within the HEI, over a period of 6 months. The sample forms a case study on which to base a forthcoming wider study. As shown in the table below the sample was comprised of largely female participants, all of whom work for a single HEI.

Table 1 describes our sample and the job category of each participant. 

Table 1. Table of Participants

Findings and discussion

This research set out to explore if, and how self-perceived introverts felt that their introversion acted as a barrier to their emergence as leaders in their organisation. We also sought to explore individuals’ perceptions of both their strengths and weaknesses to gain an understanding of the value that introverted leaders could potentially bring to the role, but also gain insights into the challenges they may face.

The themes below emerged from an initial coding of the transcripts following a pilot coding in which all researchers coded according to a coding framework devised by PI and CoIs. They were then refined and recoded for this particular study, in order to examine the research questions which, form the focus for this chapter. Theme one relates to the point in participants’ lives that they self-identified as being introvert. Theme two reveals the strengths that they attribute to being introverted, whilst theme three examines the converse. Theme four describes the way that self-perceived introverts (SPIs) perceive recruitment and interview processes with a view to gaining insights into how these may be improved. Theme five  picks up on leadership norms in participants’ organisations’, whilst the final theme, Theme six examines leadership emergence and how SPIs perceive their potential for leadership in organisations with particular leadership norms. For the purposes of the chapter, themes have been grouped together in relation to their relevance to the research questions.

Themes 2 and 3 will be discussed together under a unified title (Self-perception of strengths and weaknesses associated with introversion: A balanced perspective), as they address closely related aspects of self-perception regarding strengths and weaknesses associated with introversion. Themes 4, 5, and 6 will also be presented jointly under a single title(Self-perception of introverts in leadership contexts: Interviews, leadership norms, and external perceptions'), as they focus on overlapping areas of experience, particularly in the context of interviews, leadership norms, and external perceptions of leadership potential.

Theme 1: When and why do participants self-identify as being introverted?

A key element of this research involved allowing individuals to define introversion in their own words rather than have this imposed upon them by psychometric testing. In so doing we reveal the narratives around introversion and the hegemonies that individuals have experienced in relation to their being categorised, or self-categorised as introverts in exploring Theme one, we examined when participants first identified as being introverted, why participants self-identify as being introverts and which characteristics they considered to be introverted traits. As features in other studies, participants conflated being introverted with being perceived to be shy. However, from a trait perspective, introversion and shyness are distinct concepts, though often conflated. Introversion being a personality trait where individuals feel more energized in solitary or low-stimulation environments, favouring introspection and depth in social interactions (Afshan et al., 2015). It is not inherently tied to fear or anxiety in social settings. Shyness, by contrast, involves a fear of negative judgment or social awkwardness, leading to discomfort or anxiety during interactions. While an introvert may enjoy solitude by preference, a shy person might avoid socializing due to apprehension, this may be a limiting factor in relation to leadership behaviours. However, research suggests that not all introverts are shy, and shyness is not limited to introverts(Condon & Ruth-Sahd, 2013). This conflation could well give rise to individuals self-identifying with traits that in personality terms, they develop due to self and other categorisation, as this individual describes.

I think I've always been labelled as being shy’. ‘I think the time that I really noticed it was when I was at school, I was a teenager, I had just really bad blushing and I'm quite pale anyway, so I'd just be sitting there and even just thinking that the teacher might ask me to do something. I’d just go completely bright red and just sit there being red, thinking everyone was looking at me, and then I stopped answering the questions. (P6)

Really early in life, even as a child, I already knew that I was kind of more of a person who likes to keep to herself and engage in... solitary activities rather than spending a lot of time with other people. (P7)

Peer groups, both at school and university proved powerful influences in terms of the way that participants think of themselves. Evidence of self-limiting beliefs appear as a leitmotif throughout the narratives, but equally, participants employed their self-perceived traits in order to serve their purposes, as in the case of this individual:

I was in a group of … students who were very…. extrovert. They were always getting into things. They were always socialising. They were always doing this, that and the other thing and one of the tutors called me out for not being the same… even threatened to throw me off the course…and of course, introverts get a bit stubborn when you say things like that, so he didn't get a word out of me for the rest of the course. (P17)

Introversion is still being labelled as a deficit, as observed in the case of this participant: 

I mean it wasn't something that I really thought about until a few years ago when I developed a kind of social anxiety. I went to a counsellor, and she said she thought the problem was that I'm basically an introvert, but I somehow felt that was the wrong thing to be and it was somehow second rate. Whereas the thing to do was to sort of celebrate being introverted, which I’ve tried to do. (P9)

This is supported by arguments in the literature on introversion, that argue that it should be classed as a form of neurodiversity (see for example: Evans et al., 2023). However, evidence from this study illustrates that individuals will push back against imposed behavioural classifications, seeking to understand themselves more clearly as they get older.

It's probably quite recently, I think growing up, I was just known as the shy one …. I don't remember the word introvert being used, particularly back then. It was always that she's just quite shy. But I think over the past 10 years I've realised I'm, I'm not shy. I'm just find people quite draining. (P1)

The lack of distinction made by participants, between introversion and shyness is important: Due to the fact that shyness is a limiting condition which would undoubtably affect individuals’ preference for mixing and may inhibit their communication (Afshan et al., 2015). However, as the quote by participant 1 illustrates, although they were categorised as shy (with all of the incumbent behaviours), in fact, this person was not shy at all, but introverted. Their narrative goes on to outline how this social categorisation negatively affected their career and aspirations. 

Theme 2: Self-perception of strengths associated with introversion and Theme 3: Self-perception of weaknesses associated with introversion

During the interview individuals were asked about those strengths that link specifically to their introversion. There are a number that link strongly to behaviours associated with good leadership, for example: 

The ability ...to think things through. Consider everybody else's perspective and put things into words... I suppose being considerate and a good communicator (as well as) the ability to keep everything organised and plan ahead creatively. (P7)

I can stand up and deliver training to, you know, quite a lot of people. I mean, it doesn't faze me to stand up in front of 30 or 40 people and deliver training or a workshop. (P8)

These insights are particularly interesting in light of a current strand of research into communication skills, once thought of as specifically linked to extroversion, but now being analysed as something separate (Mitchell et al., 2022). As Mitchell et al argue, in their paper which uses a social identity model of leadership, the relationship between good communication skills and extraverted leadership, is far more nuanced than previously imagined. ‘The precise definition of extraversion has varied somewhat over the past century, but one aspect of its meaning has remained quite stable: it represents inclinations and preferences for engaging in sociable interpersonal behaviour. Some individual differences such as self-monitoring, theoretically include both an inclination to engage in a behaviour as well as skill in doing so. However, the personality literature is clear that extraversion does not include any such skill-related aspect within its conceptual definition.’ (Mitchell et al, 2022, p:1528).

A number of participants also countered the assumption that introverts are not so adept of thinking on their feet in urgent situations, as this individual reports, when identifying their strengths: 

the ability to sort of ‘hang on a moment’. let's think about this, let's…, properly think things through and come up with the best solutions or better solutions... not just do things... on the spot. (P14)

As discussed earlier, in spite of a growing body of evidence which lauds introverted behaviours and links them to good leadership, there is still a powerful discourse which undermines ambitions to take up leadership roles. To varying extents, this discourse appeared throughout all of the narratives. Some examples of which include the below:

I find it quite challenging… being heard and maybe even being taken seriously knowing… how to get a word in edgewise amongst people talking. (P7)

Sometimes it is more difficult to participate. For instance, in meetings it can be challenging if I wanted to make a point, finding the moment to cut in or flag that I want to say something that can be quite difficult.’ ‘Sometimes I do feel like I'm the one that's contributing the least. (P15)

By the time I've thought about it, the discussions moved on to something else. (P17)

Participants also highlighted the need to withdraw from social settings to recharge: -

When I'm with a big group, whether it's in work or socialising, I can, after a while...  start to feel drained…. I actually start to feel anxious, depleted and needing to escape. (P8)

Perhaps the most powerful discourse in relation to this study, was that in which participants alluded to the influence of others in identifying behavioural ‘weaknesses’ (in relation to leadership, due to their introverted behaviours:

I've been described as quite a quiet person or reserved person, sometimes even aloof. (P7)

They were discussing all of the things I would expect them to discuss, so I didn't feel like I had to come in and say something. And then after a while, the…. new member of management on the team said, are you OK? Are you alright?  I felt at that moment it was my introversion that was being picked up on in the room, and almost the expectation that I should be contributing or trying to contribute, and then that thought, well, should I've been trying to contribute, to show that I was OK is that what a normal person would do or was it OK that I was just sitting quietly taking it all in because I was? I was taking it all in. (P15)

This often resulted in a strong sense of masking, which in turn raises questions about how authentic a self-identifying introvert can be if they do take up a leadership role, as this individual describes:

I feel like the majority of people are extroverted. So naturally, instead of, you know, them accommodating me, I have to kind of get out of my comfort zone you then try and go to the other extreme of trying to show you are but, you don't always pull it off, do you, because it's not who you are. (P13)

Theme 4: Self-perceived introverts experience of interviews, Theme 5: Self-perceived introverts’ experience of extroversion as a leadership norm; Theme 6: Self-perceived introverts' views on how others perceive their leadership capabilities/potential

Themes 4, 5 and 6 are considered together in this section due to the fact that organisational leadership norms are, as discussed earlier, pervasive, infusing both the emergence of leaders, and perceptions of their capabilities once in post (Raja et al., 2020). Research indicates that bias towards extroverts for leadership positions is prevalent from the point at which a job is advertised, through to engagement and induction (Hanna et al., 2021). In this section we examine whether and how, SPIs imagine they have been subjected to extroverted leadership norms via recruitment processes, their experience of extroversion as a leadership norm, and how they feel others frame their leadership potential.

In relation to recruitment, participants commented on the ways in which they feel that interviews disadvantage SPIs. The comments below, illustrate some of the myriad aspects of the hiring process which individuals found disadvantageous:

I've always thought interviewing people is an appalling way of selecting people for jobs because you get 20 to 40 minutes of somebody's time, and you make career long decisions based on that and some people will oversell themselves and some people will undersell themselves. (P10)

I hate them. I really hate them. I can feel my cheeks going red just as you mention it, because that's how I feel about them. (P13)

There have definitely been times when... I've read job adverts for example, and it's quite clear from the advert they're not looking for someone like me or I don't identify with, it uses... terms like... vibrant or an outgoing, go getting, that sort of terminology and I just immediately sort of step back and go, oh no. Well... that's not me. (P21)

Another participant discussed how difficult they found applying for a role when the other applicants in their view, were much more extroverted: -

I think being introverted let me down a bit … because I didn't feel strong enough to go up against five other people who were in the leadership team against me. I was the only one on that Myers Briggs scale that came out as introvert. (P8)

Many individuals also discussed how uncomfortable they felt with the idea of self-promotion:

I would never overly exaggerate my achievements, (in an interview). It's just not who I am. (P1)

I think they're looking more for extroverts who could sell themselves. This was a phrase I used to come across a lot. You had to be able to sell yourself, which to me implies you know, being an extrovert, really. (P9)

I wasn't so good at selling myself and I think I had to. I had to identify that and then find a way to deal with it, to be able to, to move forward. But that was down to me. Nobody was helping me do that within the workplace. (P10)

There have been various studies relating to hiring and introversion, but findings are not consistent, however, what does come through from the literature is that SPIs very often self-limit due to the discourses of extroverted leadership that permeate leader hiring processes  (Epitropaki, 2018). The results from this study illustrate that this was certainly the case within this particular HEI.  It is also true that participants in this study experienced extroverted leadership norms in terms of expected behaviours of leaders within the organisation. But equally participants displayed their own bias, which may not have emanated from this particular organisation, but been developed throughout their career trajectory, such as these individuals who state: 

This new guy looks like a proper leader, you know in my head because…. he's dynamic, he's funny, he's got it…. It still feels like the goal to be like that and that…feels weird saying that... even at my age… I've been through this whole journey and I'm still comparing myself. (P2)

Popular conceptions of leaders are that they're outward facing that they are good at self-promotion, that they are good communicators. (P13)

One participant described their experience on a leadership training course, where they were required to take a Myer’s Briggs test, the comment from a trainer to the individual was: -

Well, you're not leadership material because you're the wrong type of person. They went on to say about this experience, why do they get to decide, it does kind of erode your confidence a little bit when someone says that to you. (P17)

Participants 7 and 11 talked about the organisational norms and the effects these had on their leadership aspirations: 

My introversion was always a big hindrance and on a number of occasions I was even told up front that I was too timid…. I had intellectual capacity and ideas, the organisational skills to progress maybe to supervisory managerial positions, but I just didn't have the social skills necessary to command people and, you know, set a good example.

It made me think, you know… that I just was not cut out for any sort of leadership position, not even, you know, managerial position. I just wasn't the type of person to be able to inspire people and get any sort of respect from a group of people. (P7)

I think the people that (I) work with could see what I was capable of, but then people who are doing the promoting aren't good at recognising that. I think that this narrow, narrow view of a leader or manager should be that they were expecting that kind of more ‘out there in your face’ type approach. (P11)

Implications of the study, for practice and further research

This research set out to explore three key questions: why individuals self-identify as introverts? How this affects their perceptions of leadership and their own capability in rising to a leadership position, and the implications of this for how we develop leaders in this particular organisation? In so doing we identified the 6 key themes, explored in the previous section.

The study supports the findings of others in indicating that SPIs believe that extroverts are more likely to emerge as leaders compared to introverts (Epitropaki, 2018; Spark, 2020). The literature suggests that this advantage stems from extroverts' fewer negative thoughts about leadership situations and behaviours that positively influence others' perceptions of their leadership potential (Spark, 2020). However, this study reveals that SPIs have very set ideas of which behaviours indicate leadership potential, and, with this in mind, on occasions, exclude themselves from applying for leadership roles. In some cases, they believe they can overcome this disadvantage by enacting extroverted behaviours, however this masking may have long term psychological implications in terms of compromising their authenticity (Spark, 2020; Spark & O'Connor, 2020). The research also supports the idea that extrovert biases often begin in educational environments, which favour extroverts, potentially disadvantaging introverted students (Colley, 2018), but that SPIs can develop leadership skills through involvement in professional learning communities and support from mentors (Kiekel, 2020).

In summary, HEIs may benefit from actively identifying and developing "reluctant leaders" to tap into a broader pool of leadership talent (Epitropaki, 2018). How this can be achieved is the focus of our ongoing project.

References

Afshan, A., Askari, I., & Manickam, L. S. S. (2015). Shyness, self-construal, extraversion–introversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism: A cross-cultural comparison among college students. Sage Open, 5(2), 2158244015587559. 

Ashton, M. C., & Lee, K. (2007). Empirical, theoretical, and practical advantages of the HEXACO model of personality structure. Personality and social psychology review, 11(2), 150-166. 

Bailey, L. S. (2023). Heritable Differences in Impulsive Behavior Associate with Altered Indices of Dopaminergic Transmission in the Nucleus Accumbens and Orbitofrontal Cortex. 

Blevins, D. P., Stackhouse, M. R. D., & Dionne, S. D. (2022). Righting the balance: Understanding introverts (and extraverts) in the workplace. International Journal of Management Reviews, 24(1), 78-98. 

Bono, J. E., & Judge, T. A. (2004). Personality and transformational and transactional leadership: a meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(5), 901. 

Buckway, A. (2020). Perceptions of leaders regarding succession planning in state universities in a Western state. 

Cain, S. (2013). Quiet: The power of introverts in a world that can't stop talking: Broadway Books.

Condon, M., & Ruth-Sahd, L. (2013). Responding to introverted and shy students: Best practice guidelines for educators and advisors. Open Journal of Nursing, 3(07), 503. 

Dietz, C., Zacher, H., Scheel, T., Otto, K., & Rigotti, T. (2020). Leaders as role models: Effects of leader presenteeism on employee presenteeism and sick leave. Work & Stress, 34(3), 300-322. 

Epitropaki, O. (2018). Self-selection bias in Leadership. In R. Riggio (Ed.), What's Wrong with Leadership? New York Routledge 

Evans, D., Granson, M., Langford, D., & Hirsch, S. (2023). Autism spectrum disorder: reconceptualising support for neurodiverse students in higher education. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 45(2), 243-257. 

Eysenck, H. J., & Eysenck, M. W. (1985). Personality and individual differences. A natural Science approach. New York: Plenum Press.

Farrell, M. (2017). Leadership reflections: Extrovert and introvert leaders. Journal of Library Administration, 57(4), 436-443. 

Flyvbjerg, B. (2006). Five misunderstandings about case-study research. Qualitative Inquiry, 12(2), 219-245. 

Fudjack, S. L. (2013). Amidst a culture of noise silence is still golden: a sociocultural historical analysis of the pathologization of introversion. 

Furnham, A. (2001). Personality and individual differences in the workplace: Person–organization–outcome fit. 

Giambatista, R. C., Rowe, W. G., & Riaz, S. (2005). Nothing succeeds like succession: A critical review of leader succession literature since 1994. The Leadership Quarterly, 16(6), 963-991. 

Goffman, E. (1974). Frame Analysis. New York: Harper and Row.

Hanna, A. A., Smith, T. A., Kirkman, B. L., & Griffin, R. W. (2021). The emergence of emergent leadership: A comprehensive framework and directions for future research. Journal of management, 47(1), 76-104. 

Hattab, S., Wirawan, H., Salam, R., Daswati, D., & Niswaty, R. (2022). The effect of toxic leadership on turnover intention and counterproductive work behaviour in Indonesia public organisations. International Journal of Public Sector Management, 35(3), 317-333. 

Hinkley, T. (2005). Identifying leadership: Correlations between introversion-extroversion and leadership qualities. 

House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. W., & Gupta, V. (2004). Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies: Sage publications.

Jäppinen, A.-K. (2014). Collaborative educational leadership: The emergence of human interactional sense-making process as a complex system. Complicity: an international journal of complexity and education, 11(2). 

Jones, E., & Graffin, N. (2020). Mental health and wellbeing in the legal profession: Policy Press.

Jones, W. H., Cheek, J. M., & Briggs, S. R. (2013). Shyness: Perspectives on research and treatment: Springer Science & Business Media.

Judge, T. A., Bono, J. E., Ilies, R., & Gerhardt, M. W. (2002). Personality and leadership: a qualitative and quantitative review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(4), 765. 

Jung, C. (1921). Psychologische Typen. Zürich: Rascher & Cie: G.

Kaluza, A. J., Boer, D., Buengeler, C., & van Dick, R. (2020). Leadership behaviour and leader self-reported well-being: A review, integration and meta-analytic examination. Work & Stress, 34(1), 34-56. 

Karlsen, H. R., & Langvik, E. (2021). Facet level effects of extraversion on leadership behaviours rated by subordinates. Cogent Psychology, 8(1). doi: 10.1080/23311908.2021.1930712

Kiekel, J. (2020). Introverts as Leaders: How Involvement in a Professional Learning Comm unity Can Facilitate Development of Skills Palgrave Studies on Leadership and Learning in Teacher Education (pp. 179-196): Springer International Publishing.

Mitchell, T., Lemoine, G. J., & Lee, D. (2022). Inclined but less skilled? Disentangling extraversion, communication skill, and leadership emergence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 107(9), 1524. 

Pettigrew, T. F. (1958). Personality and sociocultural factors in intergroup attitudes: A cross-national comparison. Journal of conflict resolution, 2(1), 29-42. 

Raja, F. U., Akhtar, N., & Hussain, S. Q. (2020). Exploring perception of professionals regarding introversion and extroversion in relation to success at workplace. Journal of Educational Sciences, 7(2), 184-195. 

Rogoff, B. (2003). The cultural nature of human development: Oxford university press.

Schein, E. H. (2016). Organizational socialization and the profession of management Organizational influence processes (pp. 283-294): Routledge.

Sovinee-Dyroff, C. (2023). Introverted Lawyers: Agents of Change in the Legal Profession. Geo. J. Legal Ethics, 36, 111. 

Stephens-Craig, D., Kuofie, M., & Dool, R. (2015). Perception of introverted leaders by mid to high-level leaders. Journal of Marketing and Management, 6(1), 62. 

Tett, R. P., & Burnett, D. D. (2003). A personality trait-based interactionist model of job performance. Journal of Applied psychology, 88(3), 500. 

Tuovinen, S., Tang, X., & Salmela-Aro, K. (2020). Introversion and social engagement: Scale validation, their interaction, and positive association with self-esteem. Frontiers in psychology, 11, 590748. 

Turban, D. B., Moake, T. R., Wu, S. Y.-H., & Cheung, Y. H. Linking Extroversion and Proactive Personality to Career Success. Journal of Career Development, 44(1), 20-33. doi: 10.1177/0894845316633788

Vough, H. C., Caza, B. B., & Maitlis, S. (2020). Making sense of myself: Exploring the relationship between identity and sensemaking. 

Wertsch, J. V., & Sohmer, R. (1995). Vygotsky on learning and development. Human development, 38(6), 332-337. 

Wisser, K. Z., & Massey, R. L. (2019). Mastering your distinctive strengths as an introverted nurse leader. Nursing administration quarterly, 43(2), 123-129. 

Yan, D., Hao, S., & Lu, Q. (2023). The influence of extrovert-introvert personality on children’s cortical activation with attention training systems. Neuroscience Letters, 808, 137260.